Education in Pakistan Essay

Education in Pakistan is overseen by the government’s Ministry of Education and the provincial governments, whereas the federal government mostly assists in curriculum development, accreditation and in the financing of research. The article 25-A of Constitution of Pakistan obligates the state to provide free and compulsory quality education to children of the age group 5 to 16 years. â€Å"The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to sixteen years in such a manner as may be determined by law†. [3] The education system in Pakistan is generally divided into five levels: primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); high(grades nine and ten, leading to the Secondary School Certificate or SSC); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a Higher Secondary (School) Certificate or HSC); and university programs leading to undergraduate and graduate degrees. [4] The literacy rate ranges from 87% in Islamabad to 20% in the Kohlu District. [5] Between 2000—2004, Pakistanis in the age group 55–64 had a literacy rate of almost 30%, those aged between 45–54 had a literacy rate of nearly 40%, those between 25–34 had a literacy rate of 50%, and those aged 15–24 had a literacy rate of 60%. [6] Literacy rates vary regionally, particularly by sex. In tribal areas female literacy is 7. 5%. [7]Moreover, English is fast spreading in Pakistan, with 18 million Pakistanis[8] (11% of the population)[8] having a command over the English language, which makes it the 9th Largest English Speaking Nation[9] in the world and the 3rd largest in Asia. [8] On top of that, Pakistan produces about 445,000 university graduates and 10,000 computer science graduates per year. [10] Despite these statistics, Pakistan still has one of the highest illiteracy rates in the world. [11] Education Expenditure as Percentage of GDP Public expenditure on education lies on the fringes of 2 percent of GDP. However, the government recently approved the new national education policy, which stipulates that education expenditure will be increased to 7% of GDP,[22] an idea that was first suggested by the Punjab government. [23] Author of an article, which reviews the history of education spending in Pakistan since 1972, argues that this policy target raises a fundamental question: What extraordinary things are going to happen that would enable Pakistan to achieve within six years what it has been unable to lay a hand on in the past six decades? The policy document is blank on this question and does not discuss the assumptions that form the basis of this target. Calculations of the author show that during the past 37 years, the highest public expenditure on education was 2. 80 percent of GDP in 1987-88. Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP was actually reduced in 16 years and maintained in 5 years between 1972–73 and 2008-09. Thus, out of total 37 years since 1972, public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP either decreased or remained stagnant for 21 years. The author argues if linear trend were maintained since 1972, Pakistan could have touched 4 percent of GDP well before 2015. However, it is unlikely to happen because the levels of spending have had remained significantly unpredictable and unsteady in the past. Given this disappointing trajectory, increasing public expenditure on education to 7 percent of GDP would be nothing less than a miracle but it is not going to be of godly nature. Instead, it is going to be the one of political nature because it has to be â€Å"invented† by those who are at the helm of affairs. The author suggests that little success can be made unless Pakistan adopts an â€Å"unconventional† approach to education. That is to say, education sector should be treated as a special sector by immunizing budgetary allocations for it from fiscal stresses and political and economic instabilities. Allocations for education should not be affected by squeezed fiscal space or surge in military expenditure or debts. At the same time, there is a need to debate others options about how Pakistan can â€Å"invent† the miracle of raising education expenditure to 7 percent of GDP by 2015. [24]

Should Pietermaritzburg Have A Methane Plant Environmental Sciences Essay

The direction and disposal of waste has become an progressively outstanding job in Pietermaritzburg over the last few old ages. There has been an addition in the sum of waste that is disposed of and the direction of Pietermaritzburg ‘s New England Road Landfill Site has been a subject of treatment and argument for the local occupants and those who make usage of the site ‘s installations. My research undertaking revolves around how and if it would be possible to better this site concentrating chiefly on the execution of a Methane works as this is the following measure that landfill sites around the universe have taken in order to do the landfill more efficient and good. This gas to electricity program falls under the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) Undertaking. 1. METHOD OF GAS-TO-ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION Procedure of change overing gas to electricity Landfill gas, LFG, ( dwelling of 50 % Methane ) is produced when the waste in the landfill decomposes and interrupt down under anaerobiotic conditions. The gas is so collected in belowground pipes which are built into the landfill as portion of the Methane works undertaking The gas is so stored This stored gas is illuminated and used to make electricity by powering turbines that turn when as a consequence of steam, from the H2O heated by the gas The excess and unneeded gas is flared in order to extinguish it The electricity can so be sold in order to power residential countries, industrial procedures and even transport systems Figure 1: Landfill gas to electricity procedure. http//www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/landfill/html/ch5.html This development of a methane works is portion of the Gas-to-Electricity undertaking that has been initiated around the universe. It involves capturing the LFG ( Landfill Gas ) that is produced when the waste in the landfill site decomposes and interruptions down. LFG is composed of 50 % Methane which is so extracted and used as a fuel in order to make electricity. The extra gas is flared in order to extinguish it. In order to see the above undertaking, one needs to maintain in head that there are restraints placed upon merely how many accommodations can be made. These restraints require the landfill to subject to the Torahs and ordinances set by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism in South Africa. In order to measure this possibility, one needs to compare the New England Road Landfill Site to the others is South Africa that have successfully implemented this undertaking. The chief comparings will take topographic point between the New England Landfill Site and the 3 late implemented Methane workss in Durban, viz. on the Bisasar Road, La Mercy and Mariannhill Sites. 2. LANDFILL CRITERIA In order for a undertaking of this nature to be approved, it needs to be considered by the South African Designated National Authority ( DNA ) harmonizing to ‘Regulations under Section 25 ( 3 ) of the National Environmental Management Act: Constitution of a Designated National Authority for the Clean Development Mechanism ‘ ( GN.R 1478 of 24 December 2004 ) . 2.1 Laws and Regulations A landfill besides has to run into certain standards in order for it to be permitted to run. There are Torahs and ordinances set in topographic point which a landfill site must conform to- and have a license turn outing this- in order to be allowed to run and are as follows: A Landfill Site has a capacity of less than 100A 000 metric tons does NOT necessitate a system whereby the Landfill gas ( LFG ) is captured and managed Monitoring of the concentration of the LFG gas in the dirt. It can non transcend 1 % Adequate and efficient airing systems if the Methane concentration exceeds 5 % The wellness and health of worlds, workss and animate beings can non be compromised 2.2 Waste Management Second, there are the waste direction standards which deal with the purpose and purposes of a landfill: Reduce waste Reuse waste and Recycle waste 2.3 Environmental and Socio-economic Factors Last, there are standards with respects to the existent edifice, geological site and care of the landfill. These are: Environmental factors Economic Impacts Socio-economic factors Looking at the Environmental, Economic and Socio-economic factors, one is able to judge whether or non the New England Road Landfill site can implement and pull off a methane works on it ‘s site. 3. Environmental FACTORS 3.1 Size The size of the landfill plays a large function in the limitations it places on the sum of ‘upgrades ‘ that it can suit. The New England Road Landfill Site is little in graduated table when compared to landfills such as Mariannhill in Durban or Goudkoppies in Johannesburg. New England Road has an consumption of a few hundred dozenss less than the above two listed sites, doing it comparatively little in size. Not merely does the Landfill need to suit the Methane works itself, but it besides needs to hold the capacity to hold the following installed on it in order for the operation to run: Extraction Wellss Gas aggregation grapevines Gas extraction works Flare units LFG Generators Electricity connexion, transformers and overseas telegrams 3.2 Situation New England Road Landfill Site is situated near the N3 Highway doing it easy accessible to those going from anyplace within the metropolis. It is besides, nevertheless, in the suburb of Hayfields and is hence in really close propinquity to a residential country. This limits the extensions that can be added to the site as people live in that country and demand to therefore, as it is stated in the Torahs sing landfills, be considered. When this site is compared with that of the Mariannhill site, 20km from the Durban CBD, and the La Mercy site, 35km North of Durban, one can see that they are in countries which are far from that of residential places and hence are non capable to the restrictions of the size and wellness hazard as that of New England Road ‘s state of affairs. New England Road Pietermaritzburg Golf Club New England Road Landfill Site N3 Highway Figure 2: Size and Positioning of the New England Landfill Site Google Maps: New England Rd Pietermaritzburg: hypertext transfer protocol: //maps.google.co.za/maps? hl=en & A ; tab=wl 3.3 Environmental Impacts on Plant and Animal Life Because of the country that the New England Site is in, there is non that great a menace to the lives of animate beings and workss. It is non similar, in other instances, a wood is cleared in order to let for a landfill site to be developed. The one menace nevertheless, is that the landfill site could, if it encroaches excessively close to the residential country, have an impact of the workss maintained by occupants in their gardens and domestic animate beings. These jobs may originate from hapless air quality, dust and/or acid rain due to the landfill site being within the country. 3.4 Global Warming The induction of a Methane works at a landfill site has great benefits for planetary heating as, by utilizing this as a method of bring forthing electricity, it is considered a ‘green ‘ fuel as it is non impacting the environment in a negative manner. By utilizing a Methane works, one would in fact be profiting the environment as the LFG, if non eliminated, contributes greatly to planetary heating. The Methane is used to bring forth electricity, hence diminishing the demand for huge sums of fossil fuels ( which, when combusted produce emanations that contribute towards planetary heating ) and the unneeded gas is flared so as to non negatively impact the environment and atmosphere. The 3 Durban workss entirely are leting a lessening in South Africa ‘s CO2 emanations by 12A 000 metric tons and cut downing the sum of coal used by 80A 000 metric tons a twelvemonth. 4. ECONOMIC Impact 4.1 Cost of Undertaking There is a high cost involved in edifice and keeping a Methane works. The Durban Methane undertaking, which involved developing these workss at 3 different landfill sites, cost R100 million, which was borrowed from different Bankss and patrons. Part of this cost is non merely for the Methane works itself, but the supernumeraries which are needed in order for this undertaking to run as listed under 3.1 Size. This is a big and clip consuming operation. The New England Road Landfill Management have planned to implement pipes in the site for many old ages now, but no action seems to hold been taken sing this. This is due to the Municipal Finance Management Act rendering the undertaking unviable due to the stamp demands ( Witness Reporter, The Witness Newspaper, Page 11, June 7 2010 ) . 4.2 Net income The net income that would be made from the execution of this undertaking is huge. There would be a big sum of electricity produced from one landfill site, for illustration the three Durban Methane workss produce a combined sum of 10A 000 kWs per twelvemonth. It has been estimated that this will bring forth an income of R4.5million a month due to the gross revenues of the electricity and C credits. It is believed that some of the landfills in South Africa have the possible to bring forth 12 000 megawatts per twelvemonth, cut downing CO2 emanations and assisting to better South Africa ‘s place as one of the biggest Carbon dioxide emitters in the universe, despite being a 3rd universe state. 5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC Factor 5.1 Health Populating in an country near a landfill has had effects such as: Fatigue Concerns Sleepiness Allergies such has hayfever Respiratory jobs such as asthma There have besides been links to low birth weight, birth defects and certain types of malignant neoplastic diseases such as vesica malignant neoplastic disease and leukaemia. These nevertheless have non been proven as yet and are simply tendencies that have been noticed more and more by physicians with patients who live in close propinquity to a landfill site. If a Methane works is implemented, it would intend an addition in the figure of people who make usage of the landfill site on a day-to-day footing. This would hold a direct consequence to the supra listed wellness effects as the dust and emanations produced from vehicles would increase and do the above effects more terrible. 5.2 Aestheticss The value of residential belongings within the locality of a landfill site lessenings. It makes the part less appealing as residential places could be looking upon an unsightly landfill site. There is besides a bad odor due to the decomposing waste which adds another unwanted factor to a residential country. 5.3 Employment and Job Creation The execution of a Methane works would intend an addition in the figure of occupations provided by the landfill site. There would be a demand for more people to pull off and run the site as it would hold many more people doing usage of the site and will therefore necessitate more aid in order to run the works itself. The lone ruin nevertheless, is that most of the prospective employees will hold to hold achieved a certain degree of instruction as they will necessitate to be taught how to run the works, as it is a specialised undertaking. 6. WASTE MANAGEMENT In order to let for the maximal potency of methane production at a landfill site, recycling is indispensable. The bulk of waste merchandises that are reclaimable are non biodegradable and hence do non lend to the production of methane ( and hence do non lend to the sum of LFG produced in the landfill ) . This means that these waste merchandises are simply taking up infinite that should basically be used for waste that will interrupt down in order to bring forth the maximal possible sum of LFG which will guarantee maximal production of electricity ( therefore increasing the net income earned by these gross revenues ) . The chief reclaimable merchandises: Glass Paper Plastics Metallic element Figure 3: Family Waste hypertext transfer protocol: //www.rise.org.au/info/Res/waste/index.html The nutrient and kitchen and green waste produced makes up the bulk of waste in a family. This waste can be recycled by being composted, alternatively of being dumped at a landfill site. The organic affair can besides be composted along with this. The glass, paper, metal and plastic signifier the waste that needs to be recycled. This so leaves really small waste from the family which will come in the landfill site. This will increase the life span of the landfill site and do the production of LFG more effectual as all the unneeded merchandises are no longer in the landfill and so decomposition will go on expeditiously. Figure 4: Graph to demo the sum of waste produced by different states. Self Generated Figure 5: Graph to demo the figure of landfills in different states. Self Generated As can be seen from the above graphs, South Africa does non bring forth excessively much waste when compared to the other states as it is graded 4th. We can see though that China, the highest waste manufacturer, has the lowest figure of landfills. This is because China manages waste really good. They have a rigorous recycling plan in topographic point and do certain that their landfills are utilized expeditiously and efficaciously. They besides do non hold plenty landfill sites to get by with the sum of waste they produce and so one time can see that non all the waste is traveling to their limited landfill sites. Alternatively, they have Methane workss that use the waste in order to bring forth elecrticity hence bettering their waste direction and bring forthing something of usage out of waste. 7. Evaluation One can see that the New England Road Landfill Site can non implement a Methane works. There are excessively many bounds created by the Torahs and ordinances and if one was to implement this undertaking, the license needed in order for the landfill to run would be confiscated as there are excessively many hazards involved. The landfill does non suit the standards involved concerning: 1. Size 2. Situation 3. Cost 4. Health 5. Aestheticss It is hence non feasible to see a Methane works at this landfill site as, besides it non conforming to the Torahs and ordinances if one were in topographic point, it is an unlikely venture because of factors such as the cost involved. 8. Proposal Alternatively of presenting a Methane works to the New England Landfill Site, one can see that the Pietermaritzburg occupants ( and those that utilize the New England Road Landfill Site ) need to set a stricter recycling government into topographic point. There were efforts to get down this undertaking in suburbs such as Athlone, Montrose and Wembley but this inaugural seems to hold lost drift. A recycling program would therefore guarantee an increased life span of the New England Landfill Site ( as it is already limited ) and would intend that money is saved through recycling. In the hereafter, a construct of holding merely the Methane grapevine installed into the New England Site could be considered. This would affect the LFG being collected and stored and so leting it to be transported to a Methane works at a different location so that the gas can so be used to bring forth electricity. Word Count: 2773

The House of Lords decision in Bolitho (Bolitho

The House of Lords decision in Bolitho (Bolitho â€Å"The House of Lords decision in Bolitho (Bolitho v City and Hackney HA [1998] AC 232) is a belated and welcome departure from judicial deference to medical opinion but there is still too much deference and more has to be done†. Critically comment on the above statement. In any negligence claim, in order to succeed the claimant must show that he was owed a duty of care by the defendant, that the duty of care was breached, and that the breach of duty caused the damage complained of. [1] Kennedy and Grubb comment that the duty of care arises ‘from a request for medical services by an individual and a consequent undertaking by a doctor [or other health care professional] to provide these services. [2] Margaret Brazier has observed: ‘[a] patient claiming against his doctor †¦ usually has little difficulty in establishing that the defendant owes him a duty of care’. [3] The second stage of a clinical negligence action is to show that the doctor has br eached his standard of care. In any negligence claim, the standard of care is set by law and is an objective standard. [4] Words such as reasonable or responsible are normally attributed to such a standard. Such adjectives are not normally equated with a practice that is ‘common’ or ‘accepted’. With respect to medical negligence claims however, the law has not taken such a view. The case of Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee [5] has established that ‘a doctor is not guilty of negligence if he has acted in accordance with a practice accepted as proper by a responsible body of medical men skilled in that particular art’. The Bolam case was a decision at first instance, but was later approved by the House of Lords in Whitehouse v Jordan . [6] The courts have continuously taken a protectionist view of the medical profession in clinical negligence claims. Jackson acknowledges that this could be due to the complexity of medical eviden ce, but it could also be explained by a sense of professional solidarity. [7] The medical profession has been highly regarded in society, and the courts have also expressed their respect. In Wilsher v Essex AHA , [8] Mustill LJ comments: â€Å"For all we know, [The doctors in this case] far surpassed on numerous occasions the standard of reasonable care. Yet it is said that for one lapse they (and not just their employers) are to be held liable in damages. Nobody could criticise the mother for doing her best to secure her son’s financial future. But has not the law taken a wrong turning if an action of this kind is to succeed?† It is interesting to note the difference in policy in cases involving medical professionals. In other negligence cases, the courts have commented that the function of the law of negligence (and the law of torts in general), is to compensate injured parties for loss. The judiciary have had no moral objections to awarding damages in cases where they can apply the ‘deepest pocket’ principle. Thus, in Nettleship v Weston , [9] Lord Denning had no problems in asserting that a learner driver would be held to the same standard of a competent driver (competent would be ascertained on an objective basis by the court), as the driver would be insured and thus, the law will award damages from the deepest pocket. Yet, there has been considerable hesitation in holding doctors negligent for public policy reasons, despite the fact that doctors will be also be insured. Furthermore, doctors working in the NHS will generally not be personally held accountable for the negligence – the action is brought against the Trust vicariously and NHS Trusts in England and Wales are part of an ‘insurance like’ scheme, the Clinical Negligence Scheme for Trusts (CNST) administered by the NHS Litigation Authority.

Rebort asimant Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rebort asimant - Research Paper Example The aim of the experiment is to understand the operation and performance of the jet engine. This experiment also focuses on the application of the thermodynamic equations in the application of engines. The experiment, also tries to investigate on variation of power, efficiency and torque with the speed of the shaft The jet engine, which is a form of internal combustion engine, gains energy from the combustion of fuel and air which produces mechanical power. However, most energy is get wasted inform of heat. This makes the engines to have large radiators. The power of the engine; energy present in the combustion chamber is converted into useful power; output. The remaining energy gets out inform of thermal loses. Inherently, free power turbines do not drive the compressor while the fixed power turbines do drive the compressor. The free type is used in civilian military due to its power torque. Power output of a jet engine is referred as break power and is measured with a break dynamometer. The jet engine in this report is dry-friction break dynamometer. Dynamometer places the load onto the engine and a corresponding torque is recorded. on the other hand, indicated power Pi describes the power that is released from the combustion chamber by the burning fuel. Generally, break power is less than indicated power since the allowance on the indicated power is for overcoming the friction in the engine. Thermal- which is represented as hp engine output is the total work done by the engine, while the hp value of the fuel consumed give heat added to the air system. Factor that affect thermal efficiency include the inlet temperature of the turbine, the compression ratio and the efficiencies for both the compressor and turbine. For a normal jet engine, the range of the thermal efficiency is 45%-50%, turbine temperatures of 2,500 to 3,000

Safeguarding Babies and Children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Safeguarding Babies and Children - Essay Example Despite the provisions by Children Protection Act, many abuses, many of which lead to death keep occurring since those with the responsibility of protecting the children as stipulated in the act are not aware that such abuses occur of are ignorant. Some child-abuse cases go unnoticed due to poor policies that guide children department. Investigative reports indicate that many children suffer abuse in their families, some child abuse cases are not recorded in social workers dairies (Corby, 2011:73). The confidence to intervene whenever a child is at risk has reduced over the past decades because there is no clear understanding on the statutory role in child protection (Kay, 2003: 42). Generally, child protection is an aspect attracting many stakeholders in the social field as well as professionals in the medicine field. For instance, children with complications attract the interest of medical practitioners who prefer the right treatment to their complexities. This report investigates the existing child protection policies and their failure to provide protection to child abuse. This paper investigates the death of Baby P, the impact of child abuse to the society, and gives recommendations on how to handle issues related to children in the society. Baby P suffered under close care of his mother and social workers (Channel 4 News). In a period of about 17 months, the child had registered about 50 injuries. The baby visited the relevant authorities about sixty times, yet the authorities did not in the slightest change the condition and ultimately Baby P died. This information is quite fascinating since it raises many questions about the existing policies that aim at protecting children. In addition, it also raises questions on the role played by the authority concerned with issues related to children. At his death, it was evident that some negligence or poor policy structures took place. The public has drawn criticism to the social department, which failed to protec t the boy. A social worker who reported the first case of abuse noted that Baby P had bruises and injuries that might have occurred due to abuse by the parents. From the Daily chronicle of Baby P's pain revealed, the first report came on 13 October 2006 when the baby was only seven months old. Information given by the parent argued that the injuries that baby P registered occurred due to accidental fall on stairs. Dr Jerome Ikwueke of GP examined him. The second case in which Baby P registered harm was in 11 December 2006 when specialists from Whittington Hospital found bruises on Baby P forehead, sternum, and right shoulder, and on his nose (Metro). Child abuse investigation team took up the case and Baby P remained hospitalized until December 15, 2006 before his discharge. A family friend Angela Godfrey took care of the Baby. The intention of Angela was to provide protection to the baby following the accusation of the baby’s mother together with the grandmother. The police investigated the case of the baby and arrested the mother of the baby on 19 December 2006. Her conviction at Old Bailey was allowing death or causing death of the baby. In a bid to find adequate information regarding the abuse, the police interviewed the grandmother of the boy at Hornsey Police Station. Baby P made three visits to hospital from 21 December 2006 to January 17, 2007. The intention of these visits was to X ray his leg. During these visits, Agnes White who is a social

BUSINESS LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

BUSINESS LAW - Essay Example The Parliament of United Kingdom can make whatever laws it wishes. There are number of areas where the legal rules of the Parliament of United Kingdom are applied. Public Acts are made by the Parliament of United Kingdom, and they are related with the issues relating with the general public. On the other hand, Private Acts are those Acts that encompasses the legal structure for the private or particular institutions or individuals. Furthermore, the Acts of Parliament can be identified with the functions. For example, sometimes, the members of Parliament are required to discuss new rules, to change or amend or modify the existing legal provisions. Also, Consolidating Legislation is made to consolidate the provisions previously consisted of different Acts. It was the use of this Consolidation Legislation that created the Companies Act 2006. Case Law This type of law is created by the judges during the process of deciding cases. In the case law, there are two important doctrines. One is stare decisis or binding precedent and second is obiter dictum. Stare decisis or binding precedents are the previous decisions, which are those precedents that are needed to be followed by the courts, which are either equal or above them in the court hierarchy. The doctrine of binding precedents lies at the heart of the legal system of United Kingdom (Exam-kit, ACCA F4, 2007-08).And in the case of obiter dictum, the courts are not bound to follow them. In the legal matters, the case law are of great important and they provide sufficient amount of guidance to carry out the process of legal nature in case any legal problem is arrived. The European Union The United Kingdom is a part of the European Union. After joining the European Union, the citizens and the United Kingdom have obligation to follow the related rules of the European Union. The important areas where the rules of European Union are applied and which are relevant are: international agreements, internal treaties and inter nal protocols and the decision of the European Court of Justice. Custom Custom is a set of old laws. ‘Much of how Parliament does its business is not determined by rules but has become established through continued use over the centuries’- this is known as custom and practice (UK Parliament). These laws are followed for years. These are the local customs which have been in existence since time immemorial. There are many limitations in this source. As a result, there are less chances of this source to provide a reasonable current and future source of the contemporary law in United Kingdom. Effects of Legislation on business Legislation has some positive and some negative impacts on business. As we know there are two types of legislation- primary legislation and secondary legislation. Primary Legislation is carried out and done by the Parliament of United Kingdom. And, the Parliament has delegated the process of secondary legislation to some person or somebody, or a busin ess. Secondary legislation is also called as delegated legislation. The rules and laws made by with the help of secondary legislation have same legal force and have some legal effect as the Acts of Parliament. With the availability of delegated legislation, a business can make any rules and regulations that it finds reasonable and appropriate as long as they do not contradict with the rules and provisions of Acts of Parliament. If the rules passed with the help of

Safety Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Safety Management - Essay Example By carrying out a safety and healthy checkup in a given organization, they could become part of its daily running that would ultimately see to the creation of a better image for both the organization and its workers. In 1997, plant XYZ made a lot of losses that amounted from a high injury and illness case in the manufacturing company. In just a year, the company had a direct loss of nearly one million U. S dollars resulting from injury and illness alone. These losses greatly eat into the company’s profit, which ultimately lowers its profit margin every year. Thus, there is need for the company to reduce the injury and illness cases by fifty percent in order to increase its profits. A reduction in these cases would greatly increase the company’s profit margin by a minimum of two point five percent. At the same time, these safety systems would also benefit the workers in a great way. The illnesses, fatalities and injuries incurred at the workplace result in a lot of pain and suffering for both the workers and their families. They end up costing these families much of the money that they had worked so hard for. Thus, by putting in place these safety systems, both the company and its e mployees would be saving a lot of resources that they would otherwise use in nursing these injuries and illnesses. There are several crucial elements that should be taken into consideration in ensuring that an effective health and safety system is in place. The first element is management commitment in the system as well as employee involvement. The management of any given organization should be committed wholeheartedly to seeing the safety of its workers. Intervention by the management into these issues would reduce the severity of injuries gained at the workplace that would ultimately alleviate a lot of financial burdens for both the company and its workers. By becoming involved in this

Predictors of Medication Errors in Elderly in Nursing Homes Research Paper

Predictors of Medication Errors in Elderly in Nursing Homes - Research Paper Example The National Coordinating Council for Medication Error Reporting and Prevention (2011) explains that "A medication error is any preventable event that may cause or lead to inappropriate medication use while the medication is in the control of the healthcare professional, patient, or consumer.† This means that medication errors do not only occur at the hands of medical professionals. In this essay, the writer review predictors of medication errors in elderly in nursing homes. This means that the bulk of the writer’s attention shall be based on factors that medical practitioners in nursing homes and taking care of elderly people can use to predict possible medication errors. As seen in the definition of medication errors, the writer’s view of predictors shall be varying and widespread, not centering only on the health practitioner but on all other causative factors including patients and consumers. Predictors of Medication Errors in Elderly This section of the essay reviews five major predictors of medication errors that can take place among elderly people in nursing homes. Number of Home Medications The fact that elder people under consideration are based on nursing homes should not eradicate the possibility of medication error occurring as a result of a number of home medications. Nursing officers and other health professionals taking care of elderly people in nursing homes must predict the fact that once admitted at the home, the history of a number of home medications received by patients before their admission at the nursing home can interfere with the efficacy and functions of medications administered to them at the nursing home. For this reason, it is rightly appropriate that nursing and other health professionals have a fair idea of medications patients on admission might have received at home before being admitted. Over the years, it is because nursing practitioners have been negligent of the need to assess the number of home medicati ons taken by elderly patients admitted at the nursing homes that Prasanatikom and Madigan (2004) concluded in a research that â€Å"incidence of medication error was highest at the first visit (23.5%)† Self-administration of medication Self-administration of medication is something that is common among elderly patients in nursing homes. Pollick explains that self-administration of medication or self-medication is the â€Å"practice of using illicit or legal drugs without proper medical supervision is known as self-medication.† The commonest cause given to the problem of self-administration of medication among elderly patients in nursing homes has been found to be over anxiety among the elderly patients (Akakpo, 2003). As a matter of fact, due to degeneration psychological problems among elderly patients, they tend to be very anxious about their health and always have a feeling that taking medications in overdose or taking extra medications aside what is prescribed for them may lead to a quick recovery of their health. Health practitioners in nursing homes must, therefore, have a forecasted knowledge that if self-administration of medication takes place among their patients, the patients risk the problem of medication error because there is the tendency of self-medicated drugs conflicting with the functions of prescribed drugs.  

What are the most significant factors affecting Foreign Direct Essay

What are the most significant factors affecting Foreign Direct Investment in China - Essay Example China has been a major FDI attraction since it experimented in 1980 and opened up to foreign investment is a few coastal cities and specialized industry parks and economic zones. Since the initial admittance of the first foreign enterprise into China in the early 1980s, the accumulated FDI inflows have reached and outstanding $ 1160.11Billion as of December 2011 . In the early 1992 when Deng was touring in the southern region of china, the quantity of FDI inflows made China become the world’s largest recipient of FDI among the developing nations and the second largest worldwide with the United States taking the lead although China was the leading recipient of FDI worldwide in the year 2002. This move has increased China’s overall economic reforms thus making China more integrated into the world economy which continues to promote the confidence of more foreign investors to attract even more FDI inflows towards China. As the reforms and changes of China’s economic structure have been induced by the large amounts of FDI inflows the evidence is exhibited by the significant changes of comparative advantage in it trade which is continuously increasing in terms of technology intensive, labour intensive and capital intensive productions. As a result, the factor bequest of China has even much stronger complementariness with the world meaning that even more factors influencing FDI in china are increasingly immerging and growing stronger over time (Sheng-xian and Hua 2012). China’s rise into its current position was mainly driven by the foreign direct investors who flocked into the country when it adopted the openness policy to allow FDI inflows into the country and has continued to grow due to its efforts in promoting FDI inflows (Sheng-xian and Hua 2012). This paper covers the most significant factors influencing FDI inflows into China while answering the questions why

Female Genital Mutilation in the Middle East and North Africa Essay Example for Free

Female Genital Mutilation in the Middle East and North Africa Essay Values and beliefs of a certain society can be illumined through the traditional cultural practices that often span from one generation to another. Globally, every social group has its own traditional cultural practices that are considered to be beneficial for the community. However, there are many instances that such practices may be harmful for some groups, most especially for women. Terrible traditional cultural practices are committed directly against females around the world. Despite the atrocities of such practices and its violation against human rights, many women-violent practices still exist and are prevalent in other countries. One of the most prevalent forms of harmful traditional practices is the Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) (Office of the High Commisioner of Human Rights-United Nations Organization [OHCR-UNOG]). The pervasiveness of FGM is attributed to people’s inability to question the morality of such action that should be addressed to those who practice female genital mutilation. As such, despite of the interventions of many international communities, in order to achieve gender equality, women are still violated and continue to be denied of various human rights. Hence, it can be perceived that many traditional cultural practices, including female genital mutilation is carried out for the benefit of the male populace (OHCR-UNOG). Historical Background of Female Genital Mutilation Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as ‘female circumcision’ or ‘female genital cutting’, involves procedures that are centered in the partial or overall removal of the female’s external genitalia, or the infliction of injury to the genital organs of female for non-medical reasons. More often than not, the practice is performed by traditional circumcisers who are believed to play a significant role in the community where they belong. However, records have indicated that FGM is also carried out by medically trained professionals (World Health Organization [WHO]). FGM is considered to be an age-old practice existent in various communities globally because it is known to be a custom (OHCR-UNOG). However, FGM’s origin has not been well established. Certain theories indicate that female genital mutilation predates male mutilation (Davis 158 qtd. in Lightfoot-Klein). In one study, it was shown that FGM occurred in areas that are considered to be restricted to the rest of the world which includes Islamic, Semitic and Christian nations. It was contemplated that â€Å"the more ancient a custom or belief, the more universally it is found† (Lightfoot-Kline). All throughout history, reports regarding female circumcision has been existent. The very first historical reference of FGM can be traced from the literature of Herotodus, who wrote that FGM already existed during 5th century BC in Ancient Egypt. He even pointed out that the practice had its beginnings in Egypt or Ethiopia because FGM has been performed by Ethiopians, Phoenicians, and Hitties (Taba qtd. in Lightfoot-Kline). One Greek papyrus dated 163 BC found in the British museum indicated that circumcisions were performed on girls by the time they received dowries. Different authors claimed that FGM was practiced by early Romans and Arabs (Kline). Methods employed in order to repress women’s sexuality has been well recorded in history. In ancient Rome, women slaves are required to wear metal rings which were passed through the labia minora in order to prevent procreation. During the absence of their husbands, women from medieval England wore chastity belts to avoid promiscuity. Tsarist Russia, as well as France, America, and France during the 19th century already practice clitoridectomy; while evidences from mummified bodies of ancient Egypt indicate that excision and infibulation has been performed, thereby giving rise to the existence of pharaonic circumcision (OHCR-UNOG). Types of Female Genital Mutilation Various types of female genital mutilation are performed depending on the cultural history and traditions of a certain community. Basically there are three common types of FGM: (1) Type one or Sunna circumcision. â€Å"Sunna† is an Arabic term which means tradition in English. This form of FGM is done by removing the prepuce or the clitoris’ tip. (2) Type two also called as clitoridectomy or excision is widely practiced in Egypt. This procedure involves the removal of the whole clitoris including the prepuce, glans and the adjacent labia. (3) Type three which is commonly referred to as infibulation or pharaonic circumcision is the procedure commonly applied in Sudan and Somalia. Considered as the most dramatic type of FGM, infibulation, which literally means â€Å"to fasten with a clip or buckle,† involves not only the removal of the clitoris and the nearby labia, but also include the sewing of remaining parts of vulva with the use of a catgut or thread. Such form of mutilation leaves only a tiny hole in the female genital that serves as a passage for the urine and menstrual blood. Women who are infibulated are cut open during their wedding night in order to perform sexual intercourse. However, right after the act, they are sewn again in order to avoid infidelity. More often than not, the groom is responsible for opening the bride’s sewn genitalia with the use of a double-edged dagger. There are some instances that women are cut open and are sewn back together during the time of their separation with their husbands. (4) The remaining type of FGM which is categorized as type four mutilation includes procedures that inflict damage to the female genitalia. Such form of mutilation may range from piercing, pricking, and stretching of labia or clitoris; burning of the clitoris and other tissues of the genitalia through cauterization; scraping of vaginal orifice; vaginal cutting; placing corrosive substances to cause vaginal bleeding, and the introduction of herbal substances to narrow or tighten the vagina (Rosenthal). The most common type of FGM is the clitoral and labia minora excision which constitutes about 80% of all FGM case. However, infibulation is considered as the most extreme form which accounts to 15% of all the mutilation procedures (Steiner, Alston, and Goodman,). The Cultural and Religious Tie: Middle East and African Areas Located Above the Equator The principle of female genital mutilation is prevalent in the societies of African territory. The extent of such phenomena can be seen in 25 countries of Africa. Infibulation is widely performed in areas including Djibouti, Mali, Somalia, selected parts of Ethiopia, Egypt and the northern region of Sudan. Meanwhile, excision and circumcision are evident in Benin, Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Gambia, Cote d’Ivoire, Chad, Guinea, Guinnea-Bissau, Kenya, Mauritania, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Uganda, Togo and other areas in the United Republic of Tanzania (OHCR-UNOG). Currently, WHO estimated that annually about three million African girls are at risk for female genital mutilation and about 92 million of the female populace, age 10 years and above have already undergone mutilation. The prevalence of FGM in the said areas is associated primarily with myths and the ignorance of people towards biological, medical, and religious perspectives. As noted by Hanny Lighfoot-Klein: â€Å"The clitoris is perceived as repulsive, filthy, foul smelling, dangerous to the life of the emerging new born, and hazardous to the health and potency of the husband† (Lightfoot-Klein, n. p. ). Majority of African countries adhere to such beliefs that it has been well embraced and became a value, causing FGM to become a customary practice over time. In Sudan, the clitoris is believe to grow to the length of the neck of a goose; long enough to dangle between the legs which could rival the male penis if left uncut. Such concept influences the perception of males, thereby reinforcing them not to marry a woman who is uncircumcised or â€Å"unclean† (Lightfoot-Klein). Among the Bambara’s in Mali, it is widely viewed that once the clitoris touches the head of a child being born, automatically the child will die. As the clitoris is considered to be the male characteristic of females, its removal is seen as an action that would result in the enhancement of femininity. In Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Somalia, females are imposed to undergo mutilation in order to control their sexuality and ensure their virginity until marriage and their chastity right after (OHCR-UNOG). Because childbearing and marriage are the only options for most of African women, majority of them are forced to submit themselves to the practice genital mutilation which they also have to pass on to their daughters (Lightfoot-Klein). The institutionalization of patriarchal system within the society also plays a significant role in the perpetration of FGM. In ancient Mesopotamia, the code of Hammurabi embarked the presence of some features of patriarchy in public veiling and sexual repression of women. It was stated in the code that fathers were entitled to treat his daughter’s virginity as a ‘family property asset. Due to this system, women were categorized as â€Å"respectable,† meaning they were chaste and conforming, and â€Å"disreputable,† which translates to low class or slaves. As a result, women who bowed to the system benefited from it by securing their own safety as well as that of their children. However, they became the steadfast advocates of the system, thereby imposing it to their daughters. Present-day Africans follow the same patriarchal outlook. Female circumcision is then performed to the daughters of the women, who, during the time they were young, experienced mutilation. Although perceived by many as a violation against human rights, the practice is defended by the women themselves because they consider it as an essential part of their tradition that ensures the social standing of their family in the community they belong (Lighfoot-Klein). The existence of patriarchal society is attributed to economic reasons. Historically, fathers are known to be keen in identifying their â€Å"real† children, in order to know who is going to handle his property. Hence, it could be perceived that the establishment of systems including moral and religious values, as well as legal aspects became an imperative in order to protect the economic interests that uphold the society. In this regard, it is hard to abandon a custom that benefits the economic interest not only of the family but the whole society as well. The existence of such system guarantees profit for many, thereby catapulting â€Å"dayas† and medical practitioners to resist changes in the practice of female genital mutilation. Likewise, the family woman can gain considerable bride price if she is mutilated by the time of the marriage. Moreover, women continuously submit themselves to FGM for the fear that their husbands will divorce them for a second wife. This perspective serves as a threat for the women in the society who have no economic recourse and access to own properties and relies only on the â€Å"bride price gold that she wears on her body. † As such, it can be concluded that female genital mutilation is the result of the economic interest permeating within the society (Lightfoot-Klein). While many experts hold that female genital mutilation is an African custom, there are few reports regarding the existence of FGM in the Middle Eastern territory. This is understandable because it is difficult to study sexual relations in societies of Middle East. Almost everything regarding sexuality and personal matters are kept in private sphere. Likewise, books and research pertaining to Middle Eastern sexual habits are almost non-existent or at the most, heavily guarded by the comprehensive rules based from the Islamic law. However, recent finding from northern Iraq suggests that FGM is also practiced widely in societies outside of Africa. The case study of Iraqi Kurdistan served as an instructive case. In 2003, a German-Austrian NGO called WADI took the initiative to take medical and social support to the women in Kurdish areas. More than a year later, women who received support spoke about the practice of FGM. It was found out that Kurds used the sunna circumcision and were performed by midwives. Subsequent studies found out that of 1,544 women, 907 had undergone FGM, which further suggests that 60% of the population view mutilation as a normal practice. The discovery in Iraqi Kurdistan debunks the assumption that FGM is solely an African practice. As Fran Hosken quoted: â€Å"There is little doubt that similar practices—excision, child marriage, and putting rock salt into the vagina of women after childbirth—exist in other parts of the Arabian Peninsula and around the Persian Gulf (Hosken 278 qtd in Osten Sacken, and Uwer). The absence of medical records tackling FGM in the whole region does not necessarily mean that the Middle Eastern territories are free from female circumcision. Such issue is left undetected due to the lack of freedom to permit formal studies regarding the subject. Taboo also plays a significant role in the undercutting of researches in Arab nations. Many scholars and NGO in Arab countries prohibits the criticism predominant culture of Arabs and Muslims. Because of these findings many questions were raised by the critics of FGM, one of which is whether the said phenomena is a religious issue in the Middle East (Osten-Sacken and Uwer). Many Muslims and academics from the West claim that FGM is not based from religion rather it is a practice shaped by culture (Simonet qtd in Osten-Sacken and Uwer). However, in a village level, the people who are committed to the practice perceive the action as mandate by the religion. Although the law of Islam does not have any justifications regarding FGM, many Islamic clerics in the Northern part of Iraq advise women to undergo mutilation. If the women wish to abandon such practice, she must suffer the consequence of appearing disreputable in the eyes of the public (Mackie qtd ini Osten-Sacken and Uwer). Some Islamic scholars may disagree with FGM but others refer to the mention of FGM in the Hadith as a defense for the persistence of such practice in Middle East. The claim was further sufficed by the Islamic law specialist Sami Aldeeb Abu Salieh when he stated: The most often mentioned narration reports a debate between Muhammed and Um Habibah (or Um ‘Atiyyah). This woman, known as an exciser of female slaves, was one of a group of women who had immigrated with Muhammed. Having seen her, Muhammad asked her if she kept practicing her profession. She answered affirmatively, adding: unless it is forbidden, and you order me to stop doing it. Muhammed replied: Yes, it is allowed. Come closer so I can teach you: if you cut, do not overdo it, because it brings more radiance to the face, and it is more pleasant for the husband. (Aldeeb Abu Sahlieh 575-622 qtd in Osten- Sacken and Uwen). Aldeeb Abu Sahlieh’s claim is further reinforced by other Islam scholars by stating that Islam condones sunna circumcision but not the pharaonic circumcision (Omer qtd in Osten-Sacken and Uwen), and that since the prophet Muhammad does not condemn the act, thereby making it permissible and cannot be outlawed (Aldeeb Abu Sahlieh qtd in Osten-Sacken). Ultimately, the practice of female genital mutilation in the Middle East may have its roots in the cultural scope of the region. However, its religious ties cannot be disregarded. Effects of Female Genital Mutilation The implications of FGM can be short-term and long term. The immediate consequences of the practice are hemorrhage, acute pain and infection. The infections are commonly acquired from the usage of unsterilized instruments performed in unhygienic areas and introduction of substances. The infections may range from tetanus, general septicamea, chronic pelvic infections, and recurrent urinary tract infections. Recently the transfer of HIV has also been a concern for the FGM researchers (OHCR-UNOG). Obstetric complications are also common among mutilated women. Pregnant mutilated woman put the life of her child in danger because the fetus is at risk of acquiring infectious disease. Likewise, the head of the child may be crushed during the delivery due to damaged birth canal. Furthermore, infibulated women are needed to be opened during child birth and are commonly reinfibulated after every delivery resulting to the scarring of the genitals. Cyst commonly referred to as epidermal clitoral inclusion cyst may also develop among women who undergo type 3 FGM (Rosenthal). Female Genital Mutilation has also psychological implications. These include sexual phobias, depression, and lack of libido which result in the premature ejaculation among women’s partners, personality disorders like rebellion which may eventually lead to psychiatric disorders (Rosenthal). Some evidences indicate that children who undergo FGM experience recurring nightmares (OHCR-UNOG). The socio-economic problems associated with FGM include higher divorce rate and drug abuse which are commonly associated with the males. It was found out that a male with mutilated wife has the tendency of using narcotics to give sexual pleasure to his wives (Rosenthal). Response to Female Genital Mutilation In 1997, World Health Organization (WHO) together with United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) issued statements against the continuous practice of female genital mutilation. By 2008, a new statement was issued supporting the increased advocacy of totally condemning FGM which was backed heavily backed by more countries of the United Nation. The 2008 statement include data concerning the past and present practice of FGM. The statement also gave emphasis on the increased recognition of human rights and provided evidences regarding the extent of the issue. The damaging effects of FGM were also presented in order to affect changes in the public policy. From 1997, various government and non-government organizations both in the international and local levels ratified laws abandoning FGM (WHO). Conclusion Based on the study, it is apparent that female genital mutilation predominantly place women in a disadvantaged position. Immense cultural pressure is considered to be the root cause of FGM. However, based from several findings, religion also serves as an encouragement for the existence of such practice. The impact of FGM does not only affect women but also the society where it is widely recognized as a custom. Although, international interventions reduced the prevalence of FGM in African regions during the past years, its practice may not be totally eliminated if practicing communities will not abandon the act itself. Hence, organizations as well as government agencies should further promote awareness regarding the issue of FGM. Works Cited Lighfoot-Klein, Hanny. â€Å"Prisoners of ritual: Some contemporary developments in the history of female genital mutilation. † The Female Genital Mutilation Cutting Education And Networking Project. 30 April-03 May 1991. 10 December 2008 http://www. fgmnetwork. org/Lightfoot-klein/prisonersofritual. htm. Office of the High Commisioner of Human Rights-United Nations Organization. â€Å"Fact sheet no. 23, harmful traditional practices affecting the health of women and children. † Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2008. 10 December 2008 http://www. unhchr. ch/html/menu6/2/fs23. htm#ii. Osten-Sacken, Thomas and Uwer, Thomas. â€Å"Is female genital mutilation an Islamic problem? † The Middle East Quarterly. 2007. 10 December 2008 http://www. meforum. org/article/1629#_ftn38. Rosenthal, Sara. The Gynecological Sourcebook. Chicago, IL: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003. Steiner, Henry, Alston, Philip and Goodman, Ryan. International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals: Test And Materials. New York: Oxford University Press US, 2008 World Health Organization. â€Å"Female genital mutilation. † May 2008. 10 December 2008 http://www. who. int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/.

Paraprofessional for Special Needs Children

Paraprofessional for Special Needs Children Paraprofessional for Special Needs Children For the past eleven years I have been a paraprofessional for special needs children. During those years I have learned about the different treatments and intervention techniques used for the various disorders among children. Through hands-on activities at work, various workshops , seminars and my own research, I have acquired knowledge about the different disabilities. I now feel I know what to expect from a student and can make the right judgment calls in different situations in order to facilitate learning. I have learned to manage children in both groups and individually, clerical responsibilities, organizational and creative abilities, , written and spoken communication skills, following instructions given by the teacher, and classroom management. Children with special needs have certain deficits, which warrant special support to â€Å"survive† a day at school. Room preparation and preparation of class materials is very important. The classroom should be set up so that there is a smooth â€Å"flow† to it. From the moment the child arrives in the morning, the daily routine should start. An example of a classroom for special needs children will be found at the end of this paper. Preparation of classroom materials is also important. Children should have a â€Å"bin† of some sort filled with materials to use for their programs and tasks. For example, if John is working on counting, alphabet and colors then the flash cards, manipulatives and picture cards should be in the bin labeled with his name on it. This way,when it is time for him to work everything is ready. Also, if there is an art project scheduled, all necessary materials should be ready. Children with special needs find it very difficult to wait for any lengthy period of time. It is very important to have the day flow as easily and as smoothly as possible. The daily schedule is important aspect in having a successful day. Each child has his own schedule due to the different services that each one has. Not all children receive all services, which may be OT (occupational therapy), PT (physical therapy), or speech. Some schedules may be in pictures and other in words. Not all children are capable of reading and therefore some children may be more adaptable to pictures. The classroom teacher would determine this. All of these supports and organizational aids help in supporting children with special needs especially those with ASD (autism spectrum disorder) and AD/HD (attention deficit/hyperactive disorder). Their information processing difficulties and auditory weaknesses require much support. In addition, their problems in the areas of social understanding make it difficult for them to distinguish between what is important and what is not. Their problems with organizational skills sometimes make them look lazy which is another reason why they need visual supports such as pictoral or written schedules. An example of a child’s schedule is as follows: Independent work Work session 1 Work session 2 Lunch Group work Work session 3 Speech Music All done Pack-up Go home A piece of construction paper is laminated as well as all the instructions. Each instruction is velcroed onto the construction paper. When the child enters the class in the morning he removes the first instruction over to â€Å"Time for†. Then when that task is done the child goes back to his schedule and places the completed task into the pouch marked â€Å"All done† and moves the next task over to â€Å"Time for†. This is done throughout the day. Directing and facilitating attention to the teacher and/or task is another responsibility of the paraprofessional. Children who are more able – those with mild learning disabilities and attention problems – can basically take in and process information that the teacher is presenting and just need to be refocused toward the teacher. Less able students are less capable to take in information successfully so in this case the paraprofessional needs to take a more directive role with regard to instruction. The Para also needs to take on a greater responsibility for using the modifications and supports needed to promote the student’s attention. This is where the role of the Para is extremely important. He/she needs to make effective decision-making in selecting the best supports to aid in the student’s understanding and which promote learning. Another important aspect, which I have learned, is pre and post-teaching. They are the backbones of direct Para support for students with significant disabilities especially in the inclusion classroom, which is at a much faster pace that a self-contained class. (A self-contained class is a class which has only special education students in it.) Pre-teaching is a concept or lesson that helps the student to become more familiar with the materials and activities at their own pace. Therefore when the lesson is given in a group the student will have already become familiar with the topic. It would be like going to Spain without any knowledge of the Spanish language. Your anxiety level would be very high when spoken to and you would have no idea what was said. However, if you had taken a few Spanish speaking classes you would at least be familiar with some of the conversation and able to put the whole idea together. Post-teaching is also very important because it reinforces any question th e student may have. It also promotes generalization, which is one area in which children with ASD have great difficulty. Many children with ASD can learn in one setting but when taken out of that setting they can’t seem to know what was taught in the original setting. The importance, which I have learned, of pre and post-teaching cannot be over-exaggerated because it can help the student become more comfortable and more responsive in the learning environment. In working with ASD children I have also learned that breaking down tasks into smaller units is very helpful because then the task will not be so overwhelming. For example, during a math lesson the teacher will instruct the students to do the twelve problems on a certain page and when they are done the whole class will go over it. For a child with ASD these twelve problems may look like 100 problems. Not able to verbalize what the problem is, the student may act out and become disruptive in the class. It may appear that the student just didn’t want to do it. There may be several solutions to this problem. One may be to cover half the problems with a sheet of plain paper so that visually there are fewer problems that need to be done, or have the student do them at intervals throughout the day. This will result in the student being successful with the task and will also eliminate any behavioral disruption. As a Para, I learned that there are countless ways to adapt and modify the curriculum to help the special needs child perform and participate more effectively. Appropriate materials and the correct environment can also support the child in the learning process. There are long-standing supports such as daily schedules and short-term supports which would be direct instruction modification. The math example, as stated above, is short-term. For the most part, adjustments regarding teaching materials and modifications are the responsibility of the Para. However, it is the duty of the Para to review any adaptations with the certified staff member. We, as Paras, are the support staff. We are under the direction and supervision of the classroom or special area teacher. Any curricular modification directly affects the content of the student’s educational program. I learned data taking is another important responsibility of the Para. Many times, because of frustration, anxiety and the lack of being able to verbalize what the problem is, children with ASD will have problem behaviors. It is important to understand that problem behaviors are different than a behavior problem. If you consider a student a behavior problem than you look no further than the student himself. However, if you view the student as having problem behaviors, you are more likely to look for causes either from the environment or within the student himself. When a Para recognizes that there is a problem behavior, the certified staff member and the psychologist should meet to discuss what behavioral supports may be necessary. You, as the Para, will be asked to take data. This data is called ABC; A-antecedent, B-behavior exhibited and C-consequence. ABC DATA Antecedent Behavior Consequence Math lesson fell to the floor removed from room When the behavior occurs, the Para will write down what occurred before, what the behavior was and what consequence was given for the behavior. How long you take the data is at the discretion of the certified staff and psychologist. Once the data is taken, it is reviewed and a behavioral support plan is put into place. One type of plan is â€Å"if-then† support. For example, â€Å"If you throw your worksheet on the floor, then you will lose time on the computer.† It is very important that the child understands and knows what the targeted behavior and consequence is in order for the behavioral support to work. Another type of behavioral support is a token system. The child is told that when he/she gets five tokens (pennies, stickers, smiley faces, etc.) he gets to choose a preferred activity for a certain amount of time. This type of behavioral support reinforces good behavior. There are many other types of behavioral support plans and it is important to know that no two are the same. The type of plans and how it is implemented depends on each child. If implemented correctly it can have a significant impact for positive behavioral change. One important aspect in problem behaviors is to watch that the inappropriate behavior not be inadvertently reinforced. Some children act out for task avoidance. In reality the student is acting out to be removed from the situation. When this occurs the Para needs to work through the behavior. However, there are circumstances in inclusive settings where the child must be removed because it is too distracting to the typical peers. If this occurs, the child should be removed but the task must be completed in order to show the child that his behavior will not be rewarded and â€Å"get him out of doing his work†. In addition to all, which I have learned, clerical tasks are another aspect of being a Para. One clerical task is to provide a written record of the student’s daily functioning. These records are a part of the student’s programming. Giving the team important information regarding progress, setbacks and an insight into future planning is critical. Another part of the clerical tasks is also keeping data on IEP (Individualized Education Plan) goals. A Para should be proactive in consulting with the teacher to find out the goals and keeping accurate records regarding them. One example of an IEP goal would be: John will initiate game playing with a peer with 80% accuracy. A data sheet with data will show if John is reaching the goal over a certain period of time. The data will also show whether John is having difficulty accomplishing this goal and if so, adjustments should be made to the way in which this goal is being addressed. The daily record and the data on IEP goals ar e very crucial parts of supporting the student and should not be taken lightly. They are essential because they provide records for meetings and will aid the child’s next teacher, and possibly a new Para, in the event you are reassigned. All of the supports, which a Para gives to a special needs child, serve an important purpose. The support given promotes understanding, minimizes anxiety, gives a positive influence on behavior, promotes independence and competence and strengthens the overall student learning. Without these supports, students with special needs are left to help themselves. Under those circumstances stress and anxiety increase and the learning process is compromised. The proper support can mean the difference between success and failure. Through the past eleven years the knowledge that I acquired is endless and ongoing. I’ve learned about different learning disabilities, child development, instructional process for different special needs children, and most of all, working together as a team with the certified staff. As a Paraprofessional I know my role is critical to the successful school experience of the student. When a child has accomplished even the smallest goal it gives me great satisfaction and pleasure to know that I played an important part in making a difference in the life of a special needs child. These are positive steps and make me feel proud of the particular child. What happens as a result is that they themselves become encouraged by their achievement. There are days when it is particularly challenging to help a student complete a task, but these challenges are usually overcome by meeting with the team and following specific suggestions. From the Author Unknown â€Å"†¦it will not matter what my bank account was, the sort of house I lived in, or the kind of car I drove†¦ but the world may be different because I was important in the life of a CHILD.†